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5 articles

system-designbackend

The Payment That Charged Twice

A retry is not a duplicate request — until it is. How idempotency keys actually work, why the naive version still double-charges, and the exact Postgres constraint that makes the guarantee real.

8 min read
postgresqldatabases

The Index That Does Nothing

You added the index, ran the query, and it is still slow. The planner is not ignoring you — it is telling you something about your data, your column order, or your types. Here is how to read what it says.

12 min read
airag

RAG Is Mostly a Retrieval Problem

When a RAG system answers wrong, the model is usually not the culprit — the right chunk never made it into the context. Here is how to prove that, and what to fix once you have.

12 min read
architecturepostgresql

One Missing WHERE Clause

Tenant isolation held together by developer discipline will eventually fail, because it only takes one query. Here is how to push the boundary down into Postgres so forgetting stops being possible.

11 min read